Coding Foundations in Preschool: A Study of ScratchJr Integration in Head Start Programs
Introduction
As the digital landscape continues to shape the future of work and learning, early exposure to technology has become increasingly critical, especially in communities historically underrepresented in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields. Recognizing the transformative potential of coding education in early childhood, an initiative has emerged to bridge the digital divide by introducing foundational computer science concepts to preschool-aged children. This initiative aligns national priorities focused on equity in education, digital inclusion, and preparing the next generation for a technology-driven society.
At the heart of this effort is the integration of coding platforms like ScratchJr, designed specifically to support young learners in developing critical thinking, sequencing, and problem-solving skills in a playful and age-appropriate manner. Coding involves arranging commands in a specific order to achieve desired outcomes, which reinforces sequencing and enhances reading comprehension through the execution of step-by-step instructions. An understanding of coding also supports mastering narrative structure and improves language development, as children learn to explain their coding projects and describe actions clearly that translate directly into storytelling. Additionally, coding promotes problem-solving by helping children work through challenges and think logically. For preschoolers, block coding further contributes to social and emotional development by building confidence, patience, and collaborative skills in group learning environments.
While there is a growing body of research exploring the introduction of block coding in early childhood programs, there is noticeably less research specifically examining block coding in the Head Start program compared to the broader field of early childhood education. Therefore, this study will examine the introduction of block coding to teachers in a Head Start program, their use of the ScratchJr application to teach block coding, and how block coding with ScratchJr can align across the curricula used within this type of program. Studying Head Start teachers’ experiences with block coding can reveal what types of professional development and support are most effective in building their confidence and capacity to teach coding. Exploring the research gap in block coding within Head Start programs is important for several key reasons. Head Start serves children from low-income, underrepresented, and diverse backgrounds and populations that often have limited access to early STEM and technology experiences. When most studies focus on more privileged or general early learning environments, the strategies and best practices that emerge may not effectively meet the unique needs of Head Start classrooms. Head Start programs differ in their structure, goals, and student demographics, and educators may have varying levels of experience with technology. Understanding how block coding is introduced in these settings helps ensure that tools like ScratchJr are tailored to fit Head Start’s environment rather than being adapted from less relevant contexts. This focus is also important for promoting equity, as it aligns with national efforts to close STEM opportunity gaps early and provide innovative and developmentally appropriate experiences to children who are least likely to experience them.
Literature Review
According to Ber and Sullivan (2019, p. 115), “the push for computer science education in the United States has grown in conjunction with STEM education.” As a result of this initiative, researchers are increasingly exploring the integration of block coding for children as young as ages three and four. Block coding is a visual programming approach that enables children to learn basic computer science concepts by manipulating graphic blocks rather than writing traditional text-based code. Each block corresponds to a specific command or action, allowing users to connect sequences that form functional programs. Rather than focusing on syntax, block coding emphasizes an understanding of logic, sequencing, and structure. According to Ber and Sullivan (2019), the rise of computer science education has accelerated alongside STEM initiatives, driving research into the integration of block coding for increasingly younger children. Arfé et al. (2019) further note that coding supports the development of planning and inhibition, which are vital components of executive function. Like reading, coding relies on understanding and following sequences, which reinforces comprehension and logical thinking. The structured format of coding reflects the elements of a story, helping children understand narrative flow, character development, and plot progression.. Platforms like ScratchJr, Code.org, and others let kids express instructions visually. Some platforms even incorporate phonics or sound features, in an effort to reinforce early reading skills. Though coding uses visual blocks, the organization of commands helps children understand sentence structure and grammar.
Despite its potential academic benefits, questions remain about the appropriateness of introducing block coding at an early age. Researchers argue that children as young as three or four may not be cognitively prepared for the abstract thinking required in coding. Introducing such skills too early may result in confusion, frustration, or use of technology without true comprehension. Additionally, some educators warn that prioritizing coding at this stage might take time away from essential early childhood experiences, such as developing social-emotional skills, engaging in imaginative play, and participating in physical activities which are vital for healthy development. There is also concern that this type of screen-based coding lessons could reduce important opportunities for hands-on, sensory-based learning. The Software Academy (n.d). and the CodaKid Teacher Team (2024) highlight several pedagogical limitations of using block coding in early childhood education. Key concerns include limited debugging capabilities, and minimal exposure to syntax errors which are essential for developing future programming skills and restricted opportunities for children to build meta-cognitive and problem-solving abilities beyond the visual interface. While block coding is engaging, the authors caution that it often does not effectively prepare learners to transition into more advanced, text-based programming environments. The report advises educators to avoid relying solely on block coding, warning that overuse may hinder deeper learning and leave students under-prepared for the challenges of more complex coding tasks. This suggests that educators should integrate block coding with activities that promote critical thinking, problem-solving, and hands-on learning, while also preparing students to eventually advance to more complex coding environments.
Building on these critiques of block coding’s pedagogical limitations, researchers have conducted studies highlighting concerns about cognitive readiness, instructional effectiveness, and the potential for superficial learning. Konstantina and Papadakis (2024) performed a quasi-experimental study with preschool children which compared ScratchJr-based instructional approaches. While ScratchJr boosted many CT skills, the researchers found persistent challenges. There was an absence of sustained intervention, the application design was incomplete, teaching methods and results varied widely, and short-term programs did not produce strong or consistent improvements. Teachers were permitted to modify curriculum at will, leading to developmental misalignment and inconsistency across classrooms. The researchers highlighted a need for stronger empirical evidence before mandatory curriculum integration, flagging concerns about inconsistent instructional quality, incomplete or immature software tools, and unclear long-term impact. The researchers concluded that introducing block coding without addressing these issues could prove ineffective or even counterproductive. This suggests that while integrating block coding with activities that foster critical thinking and hands-on learning is important, doing so without a well-structured and consistent approach may limit its effectiveness in early education settings. The researchers emphasized the need for thoughtful teacher training, evidence-based practices, and curriculum planning.
Ou et al. (2023) performed a large-scale survey involving more than 1,300 primary and secondary school teachers and examined the state of block-based programming education. The findings revealed that, although block coding is used as an entry point to programming, its implementation is often inconsistent, hampered by poorly designed curricula, inadequate teacher training, and the absence of accredited instructional materials. In many schools, programming was offered only as an extracurricular activity, and significant gaps existed between urban and rural access. Teachers reported feeling under-prepared to teach coding, and to foster student engagement and the learners demonstrated weak foundational knowledge and subpar outcomes. The researchers caution against adopting block coding in early childhood education as a blanket policy without adapting it to local contexts, providing thorough teacher professional development, and establishing strong curricular frameworks. This supports the concerns of The Software Academy and The Codeakid Teacher Team, that although block-based coding is viewed as an accessible way to introduce programming to young learners, teachers feel unprepared to teach coding, which suggests that students may only experience modest engagement and learning of coding concepts if the teacher has not receive proper training and supportive materials to provide instruction.
Papadakis, Spyros et al. (2021) performed a review of coding apps used in early childhood education highlighted several concerns. The authors note that, although there is growing interest in computational thinking and coding for young children, most available coding platforms are not thoughtfully designed to meet the unique developmental needs of this age group. According to the researcher, many of these apps are simply modified versions of programs created for older students, often requiring advanced language skills and lacking thorough evaluation in terms of their actual educational effectiveness. The analysis found evidence supporting these apps’ ability to build foundational computational thinking skills in young children. A qualitative study by Timur, Timur, Guvenc, & Yalçinkaya-Onder (2021) was conducted to explore the perspectives of preschool teachers regarding the appropriateness and timing of introducing such coding apps for block-based coding education to young children. Although a majority supported early coding, 14% of teachers stated explicitly that block-based coding education is untimely for very young children. Concerns included insufficient maturity, developmental readiness, and equitable access for children at different learning stages. The researchers contend that block coding may place unnecessary pressure or expectations on children and should be delayed until middle school and. This suggests that alternative equitable access to introduce coding concepts to preschoolers should be implemented into the classroom to build foundational cognitive skills in ways aligned with their developmental stage.
Techapalokul and Tilevich (2020) researched the pedagogical impact of block-based programming environments, such as Scratch, on the development of student code quality and programming habits. The researchers warn that such habits may undermine the benefits of collaborative activities. Importantly, the persistence of these poor habits suggests that without explicit instruction in code quality and design, learners might miss out on deeper computational understanding and struggle with future programming tasks. The research showed that while block-based programming is effective for introducing the basics of computing in an accessible, exploratory, and hands-on manner, it often leads to recurring software quality problems in students’ code. The visual "bottom-up" approach encouraged by block platforms such as Scratch is noted to diverge from key software engineering principles, like planning and top-down algorithmic thinking. As students gain proficiency, they frequently retain poor programming habits such as duplication of code, weak naming conventions, and avoidance of best practices which can persist as they transition to more advanced text-based languages. Techapalokul and Tilevich (2020) argue that although block-based tools make coding more accessible to a wider audience, they should be accompanied by explicit teaching of sound programming practices and standards for code quality. Otherwise, recurring bad habits solidified during early years can inhibit progression to more sophisticated algorithmic thinking and professional-grade programming. This suggests that there is a need to focus on careful planning, algorithmic thinking, and explicit instruction in best practices in coding concepts. Therefore, there is a need for the creation of curriculum development that guides the design of purposeful coding activities that encourage collaboration, metacognitive reflection, and logical reasoning, which can prevent the development of superficial or inefficient coding practices; preparing students for more advanced coding environments that cultivate key skills and habits necessary for long-term success in programming.
Despite the limitations highlighted by researchers regarding block coding in early childhood, other studies have found that introducing preschoolers to block coding can be a highly effective and engaging way to foster foundational computational thinking and early programming skills, demonstrating its significant value when thoughtfully implemented within developmentally appropriate frameworks. Block coding offers early childhood educators a flexible and engaging method for fostering critical thinking in young children. Through playful, developmentally appropriate activities, block coding introduces structured problem-solving in ways that align with how young learners naturally explore the world by breaking tasks into smaller steps, testing ideas, and observing outcomes. When children arrange coding blocks to create simple animations or stories, they begin to develop foundational skills in logical sequencing and planning. This hands-on process teaches them to identify problems, think through possible solutions, and build core elements of early critical thinking. The immediate visual feedback children receive from block coding helps them understand cause-and-effect relationships. When a character moves or responds based on the coding blocks used, children make the connection between their actions and the result, reinforcing reasoning skills. Coding also introduces patterns and loops, helping children recognize repetition and apply it to simplify tasks skills that support both mathematical thinking and early problem-solving strategies. As children begin to create their own simple algorithms, they practice organizing their thoughts and actions in a logical sequence, which is central to developing computational thinking.
In the classroom, block coding activities naturally encourage young learners to make choices about which commands to use and in what order. These choices develop decision-making skills as children evaluate options and predict outcomes. When projects don’t behave as expected, they engage in identifying what went wrong and experimenting with changes. This trial-and-error process fosters perseverance, reflection, and attention to detail qualities that support resilience and deeper thinking. Beyond fostering logic and structure, block coding invites creativity. Children use code to tell stories, animate characters, and build imaginative scenes. This blend of creative expression and logical reasoning allows them to explore new ideas in meaningful ways. Group coding activities also support communication and collaboration. As children work together, they learn to express their ideas, listen to peers, and consider different viewpoints important foundations for social-emotional learning and critical evaluation.
Researchers are increasingly exploring how block coding serves as a valuable tool for early childhood educators to promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Studies show that block-based programming, like ScratchJr, encourages young children to plan, sequence, and troubleshoot in ways that mirror logical reasoning. This hands-on, visual approach to coding allows educators to engage students in meaningful learning experiences that strengthen cognitive development while also supporting creativity and collaboration in early learners. Bonner, S. L., Elliott, Clements, Sarama and Kim (2022) examined the impact of a professional development (PD) program aimed at strengthening early childhood educators’ computational thinking (CT) skills and their capacity to integrate coding into preschool instruction. Twenty-five teachers participated, with data collected through pre- and post-tests, observations, and interviews to assess changes in content knowledge, teaching practices, and self-efficacy. Findings revealed notable improvements in teachers’ understanding of CT concepts, confidence in using coding tools, and ability to design developmentally appropriate classroom activities. The educators in the study reported that coding felt more approachable and engaging when taught through playful, age-appropriate methods. This study highlights the value of structured PD in ensuring that early coding integration is both effective and educationally comprehensive.
Frick, Pauli and Reichert. (2023) evaluated the quality of preschool teachers’ instructional strategies during structured block-based play sessions. Working with 16 teachers, researchers used video analysis and rubrics measuring instructional support, concept development, and quality of feedback. Findings revealed significant variation in instructional quality, with the most positive outcomes observed in classrooms where teachers used open-ended questions and scaffolded problem-solving. These higher-quality interactions were associated with improvements in children’s vocabulary, math skills, and self-concept. The results underscore the importance of professional development that addresses not only technical proficiency but also pedagogical approaches that use block coding tools to foster higher-order thinking. This suggests that professional development for teachers should focus on both technical skills and strong pedagogical strategies to promote deeper learning.
Louka et al., 2024 observed preschool aged children participating in a three-week block-based programming experience using ScratchJr. The study found statistical improvements in computational thinking (CT) and rudimentary coding skills in the experimental group compared to the controlled group. Notable skills fostered included modularity, understanding control structures, representation, algorithms, and the relationship between hardware/software. The researchers concluded that carefully designed, age-appropriate block coding environments can significantly enhance young children's problem-solving, programming, and foundational computational skills, preparing them for future academic challenges.
A systematic literature review by Vega et al. (2021) examined studies on ScratchJr with children aged four and five. The review found that using block-based coding positively impacted early math, problem-solving, and foundational coding skills. They compared block-based these studies to identify common outcomes and trends in developing computational thinking, early math skills, and problem-solving abilities. The findings support block-based coding in preschool education to build both computational thinking and early academic abilities. Review of 21 empirical studies by Papadakis et al., 2021, found consistent evidence that apps such as ScratchJr enable young children to meaningfully engage with computational thinking concepts. Alongside learning basic programming skills, children also developed problem-solving abilities, narrative skills, and self-regulated learning strategies. Educators frequently reported a positive classroom experience, noting that the open-ended nature of block coding platforms made them adaptable to a wide range of educational needs. The researchers recommend the intentional, well-structured, and scaffolded use of block-based coding apps in early childhood, viewing them as engaging and effective tools for building cross-curricular skills, including literacy and creativity. Both of the systematic literature reviews suggest that block-based coding tools can effectively support preschoolers’ computational thinking while also fostering problem-solving, early math, literacy, creativity, and self-regulation.
Aktemur and Omeroglu (2022) explored the integration of block-based coding programs into early learning settings. Through semi-structured interviews with 23 teachers and a phenomenological research approach, the researchers examined educators’ attitudes, perceived challenges, and infrastructure readiness. Teachers expressed interest in block coding’s potential to enhance cognitive skills like sequencing and logical reasoning. At the same time, they cited obstacles such as inadequate technical infrastructure, insufficient institutional support, and a need for more specialized training. Despite these concerns, most participants were receptive to incorporating block coding into their classrooms especially when it aligned with existing curricula and was delivered through developmentally appropriate, play-based strategies. Bakır and Sonmez (2020) examined 29 preschool teacher candidates participating in a 10-week training module (which included the CAL curriculum designed for ScratchJr), where they created original lesson plans integrating block coding with early math and science instruction. Lesson plans were evaluated using rubrics measuring pedagogical alignment, creativity, and feasibility. Although the study identified a need for more support in differentiation and assessment strategies to better meet diverse learner needs, this randomized controlled trial showed improvements in children’s programming skills compared to typical classroom activities. Results indicated that structured training increased candidates’ confidence and ability to embed coding into traditional subjects, with most aligning activities to early learning standards. This suggests that effective teacher preparation and intentional curriculum design are critical to successfully integrating block coding into early childhood education.
Methodology
To introduce block coding to teachers in a Head Start program and examine their use of the ScratchJr application to teach block coding to foster collaboration, metacognitive reflection, and logical reasoning; the researcher in this study partnered with a Community Action Agency Head Start program in Hampton Roads Virginia. The project was supported by the Scratch Foundation and DevTech Incorporated. The ethnic composition of the 19 educators involved in the project reflects a range of backgrounds, enriching the program’s cultural diversity and ensuring that various perspectives were represented. Among the participants, 11 educators (approximately 58%) identified as African American or Black, 1 educator (approximately 5%) identified as American Indian or Alaska Native, one educator (approximately 5%) identified as White, and six educators (approximately 32%) identify as Other. The project aimed to empower the preschool teachers by providing them with professional development and resources to Introduce coding concepts to young children through the ScratchJr platform. The project focused on building teachers' confidence in using ScratchJr to teach foundational coding concepts like sequencing, patterns, and problem-solving in a playful, age-appropriate way. Through collaborative training, teachers learned to integrate ScratchJr into various subjects, enhancing literacy and math skills through interactive projects.
Using a qualitative action research approach the project was carried out in five phases. Phase one began with training and professional development. Teacher training began prior to the start of the school year, to ensure that teachers were ready to implement the newly learned skills as soon as the first day of class began. The ScratchJr training workshops were organized for the educators by the Hampton University Information Systems (HU MIS) Program and led by DevTech Research. This phase included a comprehensive review of the ScratchJr application and the curriculum and assessment tools to be used for instruction. Ongoing professional development and support was provided by the university to ensure educators are comfortable with the platform and confident in teaching coding concepts to their students. Upon completion of the training, each classroom was issued an iPad to practice using the ScratchJr app to prepare for instruction during the school year. Phase two focused on the implementation of the curriculum. The ScratchJr Introduction to Coding as Another Language (CAL) curriculum and a computational fluency guide were the assessment tools used in each of the preschool classrooms. The HU MIS program provided physical cut-outs of the 28 blocks to allow unplugged coding activities in each of the six teacher classrooms. The unplugged assignments were performed first, offering a visual to the class of how the blocks connect in the physical application. In each classroom, teachers began by setting up stations where students could use the printed ScratchJr coding blocks to create simple sequences without using digital devices. As the children engaged in these hands-on tasks, teachers took candid photos that captured key moments of learning. These images provided a visual timeline of the learning process, helping teachers track student progress over time. In Phase three students engaged with ScratchJr through interactive activities from the CAL curriculum. These activities introduced coding concepts like sequencing and cause-and-effect in a fun and age-appropriate way. Students created interactive stories and animations, learned sequence actions, and programmed character movements. Such projects encouraged social skills and problem-solving and students gained creative confidence and foundational coding skills while developing critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving abilities.
During the implementation of the ScratchJr Preschool Project, teachers utilized a variety of strategies to monitor and assess student learning during the unplugged activities. One of the most impactful methods was the combination of photo documentation and student dialogue to capture data on students' understanding of foundational coding concepts such as sequencing, problem-solving, and pattern recognition. In Phase four, an Additional meeting with the teacher to review the Computational Fluency Guide with DevTech. The Computational Fluency Guide is designed to help early childhood educators assess and support students' computational skills while using ScratchJr. It introduces the Creative Coding Rubric, which evaluates key aspects of students’ projects, including the use of coding blocks, program interconnections, and artistic contributions. The guide encourages reflective conversations with children, allowing educators to track progress over time and provide feedback on their coding and creative processes. It also includes supplemental tools to evaluate socio-emotional development and task-based skills, offering a holistic view of a child's learning. In phase 5 The success of the program was measured by several forms of evaluation and assessment. With the support of the scratch Foundation, the Teachers also reviewed projects created in their classrooms using the computational Fluency Guide and discussed the outcomes and ways to support students’ computational fluency when using ScratchJr.
Results
The project served 104 children. Of these, 45 children (43%) were African American or Black, 13 (13%) were White, 11 (11%) identified as two or more races, 34 (33%) were categorized as Other, and 1 child (1%) was listed as N/A. Data was not provided for Asian, Pacific Islander, Native Hawaiian, American Indian, Alaska Native, or Middle Eastern/North African categories. Through interviews Preschool teachers shared a range of experiences using ScratchJr and the Computational Fluency (CF) Guide, highlighting both successes and challenges in their classrooms. Many teachers work with mixed-age groups of three- to five-year-olds, which requires different approaches since younger children tend to engage more with unplugged, hands-on activities, while older preschoolers interact more comfortably with tablets and ScratchJr projects. This suggests that younger students engaged more effectively when coding concepts were introduced without technology and using cut-out blocks and visual aids. These activities helped develop sequencing and logic before transitioning to digital platforms. By using cut-out blocks and visual aids, teachers can introduce sequencing, logic, and problem-solving in a tangible, hands-on format that matches the learning needs of three- to four-year-olds. This approach builds a strong conceptual foundation and confidence before transitioning to ScratchJr, ensuring that all students, regardless of age or technical readiness, can engage meaningfully with coding.
The Teachers were surveyed on the quality of the training, the engagement of students with ScratchJr, and the adequacy of learning materials provided. Additionally, the survey explored how the use of ScratchJr, the CAL curriculum, and the Computational Fluency Guide fit within their current Head Start learning framework. Teachers were also asked to identify areas where additional support or resources are needed to continue fostering creativity and critical thinking in their classrooms. The Head Start Preschool program in this research employs both the Early Learning Outcomes Framework (ELOF) and the Teaching Strategies Gold curriculum. The CAL curriculum supports Head Start’s ELOF's developmental domains by promoting curiosity, persistence, and flexible thinking through playful, project-based coding activities. It enhances social and emotional development by fostering collaboration and empathy, supports language and literacy through storytelling and sequencing, and strengthens cognitive skills with concepts like patterns and cause-and-effect. When combined with Teaching Strategies (TS) Gold, the CAL offers meaningful opportunities for observation and documentation, enabling educators to capture children's progress in problem-solving, language use, and creativity through ScratchJr projects. This integration not only supports instruction based on TS Gold assessments but also equips teachers with aligned frameworks for planning, teaching, and assessing learning. The survey revealed that overall, the teachers agreed that ScratchJr and the supporting materials aligned well with the program’s Early Learning Outcomes Framework (ELOF) goals and the Teaching Strategies Gold curriculum. The survey also revealed that the children enjoyed creating with technology, and some students, especially those with behavioral challenges, are motivated by these activities. However, teachers noted that it is often difficult for young children to remember what each ScratchJr block does, and they expressed a strong need for visual support such as posters or picture guides to help both teachers and students understand the functions of the blocks. Some teachers recalled feeling overwhelmed at the start of the school year when introducing ScratchJr, but with time and support, both they and the children became more comfortable using the tool. Regarding the Computational Fluency Guide itself, teachers found the rubric clear in its breakdown of developmental stages and useful for tracking children’s progress. However, they felt that the rubric is most relevant for older preschoolers, particularly those nearing kindergarten age, and less applicable to younger children. The teachers expressed a desire for simpler, more visual tools-such as a one-page checklist or chart with space to track individual children’s progress-that align with the developmental rubrics they already use, which often employ color-coded checkpoints. They also emphasized the importance of integrating the rubric into their existing assessment systems and daily routines to make it more practical. Time constraints and the challenge of shifting focus among different age groups were mentioned as barriers to fully implementing ScratchJr and the rubric in busy preschool settings. They recommended creating simple, easy-to-use checklists or charts for tracking progress, ideally formatted similarly to other developmental tools they use. Teachers also noted that small group or one-on-one ScratchJr sessions, supported by classroom assistants, work best for younger or less experienced children. Finally, they expressed a need for more time, training, and ongoing support to confidently use the guide and ScratchJr with their students. In summary, preschool teachers appreciate the potential of ScratchJr and the Computational Fluency Guide but need the guide to be simplified, more visual, and better aligned with their existing assessment practices. Providing visual aids, easy tracking tools, and practical support will help make the guide a more effective resource for supporting young children’s early coding skills in diverse preschool settings.
Conclusion
Teachers who initially lacked confidence became innovative leaders through professional development, adapting ScratchJr lessons to support literacy. Students, including those who were once shy, gained confidence, creativity, and problem-solving skills by designing coding activities. The project's inclusive design, featuring a diverse group of educators, ensured cultural representation and relevance in classroom activities. Overall, the project facilitated bridging the digital divide and inspired early interest in STEM. The result is a more holistic developmental experience that promotes equity and prepares children for future academic and technological success by nurturing critical 21st-century skills like digital literacy, communication, and creativity. Through a balance of unplugged and digital activities, the program laid groundwork for digital literacy while fostering collaboration, communication, and creativity. Ultimately, the project not only nurtured early interest in STEM but also equipped both educators and students with skills, confidence, and mindset necessary for lifelong learning and success in an increasingly technology-driven world. While the findings of this study highlight meaningful progress in integrating ScratchJr into preschool classrooms, it is important to note the challenges that remain. Not all teachers felt equally prepared to implement coding lessons, and some expressed concerns about balancing screen-based activities with traditional play-based learning. Similarly, the variation in children’s engagement suggests that developmental readiness and prior exposure to technology can influence outcomes. These realities underscore the importance of ongoing professional development, differentiated instructional strategies, and the integration of unplugged activities to ensure equity and accessibility across diverse learning environments. Future research should continue to investigate long-term impacts, explore culturally responsive applications of coding curricula, and evaluate how early coding experiences affect later academic achievement. By considering both the strengths and limitations, educators and policymakers can make informed decisions about how to position block coding within early childhood education in a way that supports inclusion, developmental appropriateness, and long-term skill development.
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